The review was in favor of finding an appropriate tool for measuring the quality of healthcare services that would be in accordance with the unique nature of the services in the country. Prepare for delivery! (Eds), Security in the Information Society, Springer, Boston, pp. Particularly, critical issues seem to be the lack of evidence regarding discriminant and criterion validity and incomplete documentation of the operationalization process. 9 No. This was done in cases where more than one study by the same author (s) reports measurement characteristics for identical samples. Our systematic review is subject to certain limitations, which warrant further research. Also, data on the suitability of EFA and the fit of the measurement model in CFA are scarce. The concept of information security culture, which recently gained increased attention, aims to comprehensively grasp socio-cultural mechanisms that have an impact on organizational security. Budge, J., O'Malley, C., McClean, C., Barnes, M., Sebastin, S. and Nagel, B. and Purc-Stephenson, R. (2009), “Reporting practices in confirmatory factor analysis: an overview and some recommendations”, Psychological Methods, Vol. Natural A emeralds are dark green, heavily included, and opaque. 12, pp. Sample size data refers to different organizations or measurements at different time periods. An EQ scale based on 16 relevant competencies showed highly promising reliability and validity. Emeralds are gemstones. EMERALD will integrate existing activities among key partners and provide added value through critical mass, joint field work and experiments, coordinated modelling efforts and novel approaches. Therefore, this study aims to identify and provide an overview of the scales that are used to measure information security culture and to evaluate the rigor of reported scale development and validation procedures. He is a great eater and has not yet refused a meal with us! gender, age and education) were reported and if one or two of these characteristics were reported, the criterion was considered to be partially fulfilled. 2, pp. Low-clarity emeralds will have too many inclusions, especially ones close to the surface. At the same time, this research field is relatively young, which means that additional efforts must be made in the pre-testing phase. 2, pp. The Gemological Institute of America (GIA) created three categories of clarity types for colored gemstones. Published by Emerald Publishing Limited. 163-178. Other relevant tests for discriminant validity were also taken into account for evaluation, if they were reported. 14 No. More precisely, Da Veiga and Eloff (2010, p. 198) define information security culture as “the attitudes, assumptions, beliefs, values and knowledge that employees/stakeholders use to interact with the organization’s systems and procedures at any point in time.” In other words, employees have certain values, and therefore, demonstrate certain behaviors that can either support the protection of organizational assets or endanger them (Al Hogail and Mirza, 2015). As suggested in Section 3 of this paper, some items seem to explicitly relate to desirable states and may invite social desirability bias. 10 to 20% of an AAA+ quality stone may have feathers or strong, eye-visible pinpoints that may even form clouds. whether a definition of the concept is present or not, whether the scale was pilot tested or not). 49, pp. When a positive information security culture is developed, employees understand that ensuring security is an integral part of their job. 1. Emerald Grading Scale. Da Veiga, A. and Martins, N. (2015b), “Information security culture and information protection culture: a validated assessment instrument”, Computer Law and Security Review, Vol. Reliability is a commonly reported criterion of measurement quality; 14 of 18 scales fulfill the empirical condition as internal consistency and composite reliability are higher than 0.7 and 0.6, respectively. The study proposed a measurement approach for the public relations practice. Contact us. Further research should also investigate the quality of definitions and make expert assessments of the content fit between concepts and items. Miller, M.B. This is the first study that offers a critical evaluation of existing scales of information security culture. For example, a natural emerald could be referred to as “bluish-green” or “yellowish-green.” Most emeralds on the market today are Colombian, and Colombian emeralds present a “bluish-green” color. This is accomplished with the fastest, safest packaging possible which includes padding, temperature control, insulation, ventilation, and clear instructions for delivery drivers. (1998), “A brief tutorial on the development of measures for use in survey questionnaires”, Organizational Research Methods, Vol. Systematic review is a commonly used method to obtain an overview of a certain scale and to collect and analyze data from a series of studies. What is the rigor of the reported operationalization of the identified scales? This is evidenced by the numerous security incidents in the past decade. In our evaluation, we followed the suggested methodological standards, which instruct authors to supply publications of new or adapted scales with all the necessary information. Our investigation also reveals that there are two ontologically different ways of understanding the phenomenon of information security culture. Gregor Petrič, PhD is a chair of the Center for Methodology and Informatics and a Full Professor of Social Informatics at the Faculty of Social Sciences (University of Ljubljana). The clarity of emeralds makes them different from any other gemstone. 303-316. Solicitation should be done in such a way that employees do not feel that their answers will have any sort of impact on their status in the organization. Moreover, in such cases, it might be advisable for researchers to apply unidimensional scales of information security culture. For example, in one study, the item “The information security policy is understandable by all employees irrespective of their ranks” received a mean agreement of 4.7 (on a scale of 1 to 5), and the average of all other items was higher than 4.3. 474-489. This means that organizations can measure not only the knowledge and behaviors of employees regarding security but also their values, beliefs and attitudes toward security. Basic information of the selected studies. Moreover, the items in some scales may be suggestive, asking respondents to assess statements that reveal desirable states, such as intention to protect information technology resources, in an overly direct manner (Rocha Flores and Ekstedt, 2016). Factor analyzes themselves are not evidence of construct validity, yet they can be understood as a technical precondition for establishing construct validity. One study is international and was conducted in several countries. In contrast, the reported statistical tests of the scales are rather limited for various factor-analytical procedures, and empirical insights into validity are more rare or even completely absent in the case of criterion validity. To date, Emerald Scales has shipped hundreds of reptiles, 99% of which arrived to their new owners in perfect condition. Moreover, most of the studies provide an underlying logic for the development of items, which allows other researchers to make subjective assessments of the face and content validity of the proposed scales. Contact us. Article publication date: 4 December 2020. and Zaini, M.K. Eligibility: The last phase of the search strategy involved a thorough analysis of the studies that were selected in the screening phase. This may be a consequence of the fact that some authors do not report some psychometric characteristics of the scales or other elements of the operationalization process. Gordon, L.A. and Loeb, M.P. This sort of balancing also applies to questions about how often the information security culture should be measured within organizations. You can join in the discussion by joining the community or logging in here.You can also find out more about Emerald Engage. 117-129. Our study has some direct and indirect implications for organizations that aim to measure information security culture among their employees. 4, pp. Hays, R.D., Hayashi, T. and Stewart, A.L. Consequently, the values are always somewhat arbitrary, although we tried to use a common denominator among different studies. (2004), Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Understanding Concepts and Applications, American Psychological Association, Washington, DC. Emerald from the deposits at Poona shows micrometre-scale chemical, optical, and cathodoluminescence zonation. Comment by varenne This item drops from Ravenous Sandworm and part of the Adept Sandfisher. 128-141. 7, pp. Taken together, however, the three scales … We rehabilitate, rehome and sell and ship reptiles and amphibians to almost anywhere in the USA. For this achievement you need to wait for Vol'dun Sandfishing World Quest to pop up. Not available (NA), Security culture is measured as one-dimensional concept. In this evaluation, we do not evaluate the quality of definitions or the quality of pilot tests. and Ojha, A. As the unit of analysis is typically an “ordinary” employee, the content of items seems independent of the industry, and thus, is applicable to any kind of organization. It’s normal for emeralds to have inclusions — in fact, around 99% of all natural emeralds will include them. Saris, W.E. 27 No. In natural emeralds, color is evaluated by three categories: hue, tonal grade, and saturation. The majority of scales provide definitions of the concept/construct, which is immensely important for further development of the scales and the research field in general. 29 No. To further establish and recognize the importance of researching the human factor in information security, developing a common concept is necessary. Emeralds are most commonly graded on four factors: color, clarity, cut, and carat weight. There were some major differences in the nature of the items between different scales. They are still good, but they are considered to be of a lower quality compared to the two categories above. But pushing down the other side of the scales are faults and annoyances that should really have been put right by now. This study represents a step in these directions. 6 No. Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J. According to the methodological literature, this is a step-by-step procedure that involves description of the source of items (i.e. (2016), “Applied structural equation modelling for researchers and practitioners: using R and stata for behavioural research”, available at: https://books.google.si/books?id=YzGwDQAAQBAJ (accessed 19 June 2019). In addition, methodological guidelines suggest that studies should present the basic characteristics of the sample from which data for scale validation were collected. 151 No. First, order an intake kit below and we will mail you everything needed to ship your animals to us. During the selection process, we discovered 11 studies that measure information security culture as a multidimensional construct and 8 studies that measure it as a unidimensional concept. We presented the results regarding the rigor of operationalization and reported empirical evidence for the quality of measurement separately. Moreover, we identify two different types of studies about how information security culture is conceptualized and related to other phenomena. Therefore, it is important for researchers to consider two implications. Therefore, they can be graded by the preferred grading system for all gemstones: Natural AAA, AA, or A. Dillman, D.A., Smyth, J.D. Martins, A. and Eloff, J. At the regional scale and in several emerald mining districts, there are extended and continuous zones of mineralization ... Vasilios Melfos, and Ian Graham for their invitation to present an extended review on emerald deposits. The study involves empirical research with survey-based measure (s) of information security culture. The items in other scales are straightforward and assess the frequency of activities that affect the information security of an organization, such as sharing passwords and opening emails from unknown senders (Parsons et al., 2014). Finally, the methodological guidelines regarding threshold values and some of the statistical parameters are not universally accepted. In total, 92 duplicates were found and excluded from further analysis. 49 No. We take in reptiles and amphibians and get them to the perfect keepers. Inclusion: Ultimately, 19 studies were included in the systematic review (Figure 1). Convergent validity is usually computed on the basis of factor weights (loadings). and Zaini, M.K. First, the pre-testing phase should aim to reduce the number of items per dimension to an essential minimum (at least three items per dimension allows for an advanced statistical test of different types of validity and reliability). This pre-testing should not only include a pilot study of the proposed instrument but also the application of a mixed-method design, in which qualitative insight into the meanings respondents ascribe to certain items is essential. She is currently involved into issues of conceptualization and measurement of information security culture and human factors in security in general. 52, pp. Mokwetli, M. and Zuva, T. (2018), “Adoption of the ICT security culture in SMME’s in the Gauteng province, South Africa”, in 2018 International Conference on Advances in Big Data, Computing and Data Communication Systems (icABCD), Curran Associates, New York, NY, pp. In publications without an impact factor (mostly papers published as part of conference proceedings), 51.7% of the rigor of operationalization criteria and 47.5% of the validity and reliability criteria were fulfilled. For this purpose, multidimensional scales of information security culture are especially relevant, as they allow for detailed insight into organizational security culture (under the condition that they are valid and reliable). Efficiently rehabilitating, rehoming and selling exotic reptiles and amphibians. Furthermore, six studies do not mention or test any aspect of construct validity and criterion validity (concurrent or predictive) is absent from all the studies. They are extremely rare and expensive. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyzes are required for establishing a valid new or adapted scale (Hinkin, 1998; Yong and Pearce, 2013). Second, not all dimensions of information security culture may be relevant for specific types of industries or organizations, and thus, the measurement phase could be limited to certain dimensions. 2, pp. The results also showed the relevance of two other competency‐based scales – intellectual intelligence (IQ) and managerial intelligence (MQ) – which both predicted organisational advancement. Table 4 provides an overview of the number of items, content of the sample items and unit of analysis of the studies. This is even more important when the outcomes of measurements are taken as a baseline for decision-making. Information security culture offers a valid baseline, but higher agreement on the definition of this concept is needed. First, an overview of the scales showed that some, especially multidimensional scales of information security culture, tend to include many aspects of “the human factor” in organizational information security. Reliability is another important criterion for the quality of a measurement, and it is usually estimated based on Cronbach’s alpha, which should be above 0.7 (Miller, 2009; Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994) or the composite reliability coefficient, which should be above 0.6 (Allen and Yen, 2002). Nexus Whelpling can be found in the Coldarra area of Borean Tundra. 9 No. You can see the difference in actual natural stones below in our emerald color chart. 79-94. 1, pp. Tinsley, H.E. 36 No. Emerald saturation can range from very dull green to pure and vivid. Different theoretical (mostly psychological) models have been applied in this field, and a number of concepts have emerged, such as information security awareness, conscious care behavior, compliance with security policies, information protection culture and cybersecurity culture. Use Sandfishing Pole extra action button to summon quest mobs. 2. (2002), “Introduction to measurement theory”, available at: http://books.google.si/books?id=MNUpY_csc6cC (accessed 18 June 2019). (2014), Social Research Methods, Pearson Education Limited, London. Therefore, they can be graded by the preferred grading system for all gemstones: Natural AAA, AA, or A. The literature usually considers an absolute value of 0.4 for factorial weights or an average variance extracted (AVE) coefficient of higher than 0.5 as critical for convergent validity. 5, pp. However, it is possible that there are studies that measure information security culture but do not use this term or related wording in the title or abstract of the study. 1049-1092. Pet boas, pythons and colubrids for sale. Information security researchers and professionals are increasingly insisting that security risks and threats cannot be effectively avoided by solely technical means and that organizational human capital, which can influence the security of an entire organization, must be considered (Gordon and Loeb, 2005; Rančigaj and Lobnikar, 2012; Tsohou et al., 2015). However, this means that all employees in the organization need to be solicited for the survey instrument, not only a sample of them. This work was supported by the Slovenian Research Agency within the “Young researchers” program [grant number P5-0168]. Screening was based on the examination of titles and abstracts. In contrast, the other set of eight studies measures information security culture directly via a set of measurement items. The process of operationalization starts with an essential definition of a concept to be measured, identification of the concept’s (possible) dimensions and their definitions, development and testing of an initial pool of items and establishment of a finalized scale with a clear set of items, introductory text and answer categories and basic statistics for the items (AERA, 1992; DeVellis, 2016; Neuman, 2014). Emeralds in this category are medium green and may include moderate inclusions. “Open access” refers to online research results that are freely available in different databases without copyright or licensing restrictions. Overnight shipping to anywhere in the contiguous USA. Tabachnick, B.G. More precisely, we seek to answer three research questions: Which measurement scales are used to measure information security culture? However, the content, breadth and face validity of these scales vary greatly. This study aims to identify and provide an overview of the scales that are used to measure information security culture and to evaluate the rigor of reported scale development and validation procedures.,Papers that introduce a new or adapt an existing scale of information security culture were systematically reviewed to evaluate scales of information security culture. (2018), “An approach to information security culture change combining ADKAR and the ISCA questionnaire to aid transition to the desired culture”, Information and Computer Security, Vol. (1995), The Multitratit-Multimethod Approach to Evaluate Measurement Instruments, Eotvos University Press, Budapest. “antioxidant” blend of berries, flowers, and teas; a “fiber” blend” that includes apple fiber, rice bran, and flax (there The importance of sound validation of scales is understood as one of the most important elements in research (Schoenfeldt, 1984), especially in the context of information security, as weakly validated scales might lead to a wrong assessment of information security culture in an organization and, in turn, to decisions with devastating consequences. 255-273. 104-121. 1, pp. To statistically validate the measurement instrument, the sample size must be at least 300 units or five times larger than the number of items in a scale (Hair et al., 2014; Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994; Tinsley and Tinsley, 1987). and Wen, K.W. (2007), “Information security effectiveness: conceptualization and validation of a theory”, International Journal of Information Security and Privacy, Vol. and Anderson, R.E. 42, pp. It was confirmed in the literature that every country, and even every healthcare service organization, should have its own framework for measuring the quality of healthcare services. The lack of convincing evidence for validation of information security culture scales is not surprising because the field is relatively young and interest in the concept of information security culture has significantly increased only in the past few years after scholars realized that the concept of information security awareness was too narrow to address the complexity of the human factor in information security (Metalidou et al., 2014). and Zainab, A.N. 22 No. Natural AAA gemstones are the top 20%-30% of gemstones in terms of quality. Natural A: This category accounts for 50 to 75% of all gemstones. Inclusions are normal in emeralds, but if there are too many, the gemstone will start to look less like a crystal. Our evaluation gave a score of 0 both when a criterion is not fulfilled and when there was no reported data that could be used to check the fulfillment of the criterion. Several items that pertain to adherence to information security policies simply ask respondents to assess their adherence to such policies without testing the assumption that respondents know the content of organizational security policies. A standard search strategy was applied to identify 19 relevant scales… All relevant identified articles were accessed using a digital library service provided by the University of Ljubljana or were obtained via open access [3]. Prepare for delivery! (2018), Instill a Security Culture by Elevating Communication, Forrester Research, Cambridge, MA. The testing phase is of utmost importance to determine the parsimonious number of items, and thus, minimize employee burden without impacting the quality of measuring. Emerald clarity refers to what the gemstone looks like on the inside. and AlShare, K.A. Therefore, it is advisable to pre-test items for social desirability bias by correlating them with the social desirability scale (Hays et al., 1989). Natural AAA: This is the highest quality. This blue mail armor of item level 32 goes in the "Legs" slot. It enables critical evaluation of identified scales, and the findings contribute to further optimization of those scales (Moher et al., 2009). 39-50. Carmines, E.G. Finally, the study concluded that further research advancing the excellence scholarship is essential to better understanding the … 20, pp. The association between journal impact and evidence for validation of the scale seems to be stronger. This is the highest quality, even better than AAA. Organizations must develop a certain level of information security culture to reduce or minimize the security risks incurred by employees when they use organizational ICTs (Da Veiga and Eloff, 2010) or personal technologies in an organizational context. In addition, organizations need valid scales to assess the true state of their information security culture and act accordingly. With this information, organizations can enhance their security awareness programs, which usually address only employees’ knowledge, with a broader and more tailored curriculum. 7, p. e1000100. 2 No. Approximately half of the studies report conducting expert review and pilot testing. An investigation of the geographical characteristics of the studies shows that six studies were conducted in Asia (Saudi Arabia, Malaysia and Oman), five were conducted in Africa (Republic of South Africa and Nigeria), four in North America, two in Europe (Norway and Sweden) and one in Australia. 35-54. Organizations can implement the latest technological security solutions, but employees are still the ones who (often unknowingly) invite security breaches through careless behavior, which results from a poor information security culture (Singh et al., 2014; Tsohou et al., 2015). First: We believe that secret peer reviewing, where authors don't know who has reviewed their work and reviewers don't have to publicly stand by their comments, opens up the possibility of bias.
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